This practice is not mentioned in the Torah, but we know from Roman sources that at least by the end of the period of the second Bet ha-Mikdash, the Jewish people lit candles prior to Shabbat, see sources in Lewin, 1938, pp. 55,56, and Lauterbach, 1973, p. 454. The Mishnah (Shabbat, chapter 2) discusses details of the law but does not explain the source of this practice.
The Talmud (Shabbat 23b) quotes from Rava that if a person has only enough oil for Shabbat candles or for Hanukkah candles, or only enough money for Shabbat candles or wine for Kiddush, then Shabbat candles takes precedence because of shalom bayit, peace in the house. The idea being that the light gives benefit to the people, and this has been understood to mean that light enables one to see one's food (Rashi on Shabbat 25b, hovah, Neuwirth, 1989, p. 31) and/or that a person will not trip when walking in the house, (Rashi on Shabbat 25b, hadlakah). Furthermore, this idea of benefit has been called kavod Shabbat, and oneg Shabbat in addition to being considered shalom bayit, see Rambam (Laws of Shabbat 5:1) and Arukh Hashulchan (1829-1908, Orah Chayyim 263:1). Yet, was the Talmud giving the reason for the law or just saying that this was an additional benefit to lighting Shabbat candles over and above its basic rationale?
One indication that the point of lighting Shabbat candles is not just to give light is that the basic requirement is just to light one candle (Shulchan Arukh, Orah Chayyim 263:1). In addition, the Talmud (Shabbat 25b) states that lighting the candles is an obligation, while if the law was due to kavod Shabbat, oneg Shabbat or shalom bayit it would not be an obligation.
Lauterbach, (1973, p. 459) makes the fascinating suggestion that the “ceremony of having lights on Friday night was a protest against the Samaritans and Sadducees." According to the Sadducees and the Samaritans, based on Shemot 35:3 (see our discussion on Shemot 35:3, "Can't start a fire"), a person has to extinguish all fires prior to the Shabbat, while now one is lighting a fire specifically prior to Shabbat in order that there would be a fire burning on Shabbat. Thus, only one light had to be lit because that was sufficient to show that a person was repudiating the Sadducees and Samaritan beliefs.
The Talmud (Shabbat 23b) quotes from Rava that if a person has only enough oil for Shabbat candles or for Hanukkah candles, or only enough money for Shabbat candles or wine for Kiddush, then Shabbat candles takes precedence because of shalom bayit, peace in the house. The idea being that the light gives benefit to the people, and this has been understood to mean that light enables one to see one's food (Rashi on Shabbat 25b, hovah, Neuwirth, 1989, p. 31) and/or that a person will not trip when walking in the house, (Rashi on Shabbat 25b, hadlakah). Furthermore, this idea of benefit has been called kavod Shabbat, and oneg Shabbat in addition to being considered shalom bayit, see Rambam (Laws of Shabbat 5:1) and Arukh Hashulchan (1829-1908, Orah Chayyim 263:1). Yet, was the Talmud giving the reason for the law or just saying that this was an additional benefit to lighting Shabbat candles over and above its basic rationale?
One indication that the point of lighting Shabbat candles is not just to give light is that the basic requirement is just to light one candle (Shulchan Arukh, Orah Chayyim 263:1). In addition, the Talmud (Shabbat 25b) states that lighting the candles is an obligation, while if the law was due to kavod Shabbat, oneg Shabbat or shalom bayit it would not be an obligation.
Lauterbach, (1973, p. 459) makes the fascinating suggestion that the “ceremony of having lights on Friday night was a protest against the Samaritans and Sadducees." According to the Sadducees and the Samaritans, based on Shemot 35:3 (see our discussion on Shemot 35:3, "Can't start a fire"), a person has to extinguish all fires prior to the Shabbat, while now one is lighting a fire specifically prior to Shabbat in order that there would be a fire burning on Shabbat. Thus, only one light had to be lit because that was sufficient to show that a person was repudiating the Sadducees and Samaritan beliefs.
(Lewin, 1938, p. 60, quotes a similar idea from R. Yosef Caro, but R. Caro relates it to the Karaites, that that the lighting is to repudiate the Karaites. Also, according to Lauterbach's suggestion, the comment in the Midrash, Genesis Rabbah, 60:16, quoted by Rashi on Bereshit 24:67, that when Sarah was alive, a lamp used to burn in her tent from the evening of Sabbath until the evening of the following Sabbath, is not referring to our practice of lighting Shabbat candles since by Sarah the candles burned all week.)
This idea that the lighting of the candles was to repudiate the views of the Samaritans, Sadducees and the Karaites explains some of the importance given to the lighting of the Sabbath candles. For instance, Rambam (Laws of Sabbath 5:1) writes that one must beg for money to fulfill the requirement of lighting candles for Shabbat. However, in Laws of Sabbath 30:7, he records that with regard to eating on Shabbat, which is also considered oneg Shabbat, one is not required to beg for money to get food on Shabbat. Why the difference? The answer is that lighting the Shabbat candles not only added pleasure to Shabbat but it made the point that a person was not a Sadducee, Samaritan and later a Karaite.
Another question that arises with regard to the candle lighting is whether one recites a blessing when lighting the candles. Today the practice is to say a blessing, but the Talmud does not record any blessing only that one is required to light the candles, Shabbat 25b. Tosafot (Shabbat 25b, Hovah, also see Tur 263) quotes that in the Middle Ages, there were people who said that one does not make a blessing on candle lighting, and they compared this case to washing one's hands after eating, mayim achronim, which is also considered obligatory by the Talmud but has no blessing. However, Tosafot quotes Rabbenu Tam that we do say a blessing as Rav Amram Gaon (9th century, 2004, p.61) in his Siddur stated that one recites a blessing by candle lighting.
The Arukh Hashulchan (above) asks that with regard to other obligations on Shabbat that are considered oneg Shabbat there is no blessing, so why by candle lighting is there a blessing? He answers that there was a special enactment by the candle lighting. Yet, his proof of this enactment is that the Talmud stated that candle lighting is obligatory but while this is true, the Talmud never stated that one is to recite a blessing by the candle lighting.
Lewin (1938, pp. 67,68) notes that we have no record of exactly when the blessing on candle lighting was instituted, but he quotes Rav Natronai Gaon, (9th century) who preceded Rav Amram Gaon as the head of the academy of Sura (853-858), as the first person who we have on record as stating that one says a blessing on candle lighting. (Also see Lewin's work, Otzar ha-Geonim, Shabbat 25b, paragraphs 83-85.) Hoffmann (1979, p. 86) questions whether the attribution of the blessing to Rav Natronai Gaon is correct, but he concludes, "we cannot go far wrong if we attribute the blessing to either Amram or Natronai."
This idea that the lighting of the candles was to repudiate the views of the Samaritans, Sadducees and the Karaites explains some of the importance given to the lighting of the Sabbath candles. For instance, Rambam (Laws of Sabbath 5:1) writes that one must beg for money to fulfill the requirement of lighting candles for Shabbat. However, in Laws of Sabbath 30:7, he records that with regard to eating on Shabbat, which is also considered oneg Shabbat, one is not required to beg for money to get food on Shabbat. Why the difference? The answer is that lighting the Shabbat candles not only added pleasure to Shabbat but it made the point that a person was not a Sadducee, Samaritan and later a Karaite.
Another question that arises with regard to the candle lighting is whether one recites a blessing when lighting the candles. Today the practice is to say a blessing, but the Talmud does not record any blessing only that one is required to light the candles, Shabbat 25b. Tosafot (Shabbat 25b, Hovah, also see Tur 263) quotes that in the Middle Ages, there were people who said that one does not make a blessing on candle lighting, and they compared this case to washing one's hands after eating, mayim achronim, which is also considered obligatory by the Talmud but has no blessing. However, Tosafot quotes Rabbenu Tam that we do say a blessing as Rav Amram Gaon (9th century, 2004, p.61) in his Siddur stated that one recites a blessing by candle lighting.
The Arukh Hashulchan (above) asks that with regard to other obligations on Shabbat that are considered oneg Shabbat there is no blessing, so why by candle lighting is there a blessing? He answers that there was a special enactment by the candle lighting. Yet, his proof of this enactment is that the Talmud stated that candle lighting is obligatory but while this is true, the Talmud never stated that one is to recite a blessing by the candle lighting.
Lewin (1938, pp. 67,68) notes that we have no record of exactly when the blessing on candle lighting was instituted, but he quotes Rav Natronai Gaon, (9th century) who preceded Rav Amram Gaon as the head of the academy of Sura (853-858), as the first person who we have on record as stating that one says a blessing on candle lighting. (Also see Lewin's work, Otzar ha-Geonim, Shabbat 25b, paragraphs 83-85.) Hoffmann (1979, p. 86) questions whether the attribution of the blessing to Rav Natronai Gaon is correct, but he concludes, "we cannot go far wrong if we attribute the blessing to either Amram or Natronai."
We see that the blessing on candle lighting on Friday night seems to have begun in the ninth century. Why then was a blessing instituted? Again, Lauterbach (1951, pp. 459-61) provides the insight, as he suggests that "the blessing was a protest against the Karaites,” as the Karaites also followed the idea that Shemot 35:3 means that a person cannot have a fire burning on Shabbat even if it was lit beforehand.
Hoffmann (1979, p. 88) notes the difficulty the Geonim had in justifying the blessing on candle lighting, and he agrees with Lauterbach that "we may see the benediction as a polemic against the Karaite sect." The blessing increased the religious significance of lighting the Shabbat candles, which would have strengthened the observance of lighting the candles to contradict the Karaite practice of not having any fires lit on Shabbat.
Hoffmann (1979, p. 88) notes the difficulty the Geonim had in justifying the blessing on candle lighting, and he agrees with Lauterbach that "we may see the benediction as a polemic against the Karaite sect." The blessing increased the religious significance of lighting the Shabbat candles, which would have strengthened the observance of lighting the candles to contradict the Karaite practice of not having any fires lit on Shabbat.
Accordingly, we see that there was a two-stage development in the law of lighting Shabbat candles. Initially, the lighting was done to counter the beliefs of the Sadducees and the Samaritans, and when the controversy was renewed with the Karaites, the Geonim added the blessing to repudiate the Karaites.
This rationale for lighting and making the blessing on Shabbat candles might also explain some customs with regard to lighting candles on Yom Tov. Abudraham (Spain, early 14th century, in his commentary on Friday night prayers, Bameh Madlikin, Mishnah Shabbat 2:6) first quotes Rabbenu Gershon ben Rabbi Shelomo that the custom is not to make a blessing when lighting the candle for Yom Tov, but then he quotes that the Baal Mishmeret ha-Moadot wrote that a person should recite a blessing when lighting a candle for Yom Tov.
Rason Arusi (1979) notes that even today some Yemenite Jews do not make a blessing on lighting candles on Yom Tov. Arusi writes that the Raviah (Germany, 12th century) was the first to record that one is light candles on Yom Tov. The Raviah writes that his source was a Yerushalmi, but this Yerushalmi does not exist in out versions today. Arusi suggests that this reference to a Yerushalmi is not to the Talmud Yerushalmi but to a book of customs in medieval Germany which called itself Yerushalmi since many of the customs of Ashkenazi Jewry were from the community that lived in the land of Israel.
Arusi argues that the late development of lighting candles and saying a blessing on candles for Yom Tov is because the reason for lighting on Shabbat is due to the fight with the Sadducees and the Karaites, but this reason was not applicable to Yom Tov, where the use of fire is permitted. Thus, initially the custom was only to light candles for Shabbat, while the lighting of candles prior to Yom Tov and reciting the blessing on the lighting only developed afterwards due to a desire to make Yom Tov similar to Shabbat.
This rationale for lighting and making the blessing on Shabbat candles might also explain some customs with regard to lighting candles on Yom Tov. Abudraham (Spain, early 14th century, in his commentary on Friday night prayers, Bameh Madlikin, Mishnah Shabbat 2:6) first quotes Rabbenu Gershon ben Rabbi Shelomo that the custom is not to make a blessing when lighting the candle for Yom Tov, but then he quotes that the Baal Mishmeret ha-Moadot wrote that a person should recite a blessing when lighting a candle for Yom Tov.
Rason Arusi (1979) notes that even today some Yemenite Jews do not make a blessing on lighting candles on Yom Tov. Arusi writes that the Raviah (Germany, 12th century) was the first to record that one is light candles on Yom Tov. The Raviah writes that his source was a Yerushalmi, but this Yerushalmi does not exist in out versions today. Arusi suggests that this reference to a Yerushalmi is not to the Talmud Yerushalmi but to a book of customs in medieval Germany which called itself Yerushalmi since many of the customs of Ashkenazi Jewry were from the community that lived in the land of Israel.
Arusi argues that the late development of lighting candles and saying a blessing on candles for Yom Tov is because the reason for lighting on Shabbat is due to the fight with the Sadducees and the Karaites, but this reason was not applicable to Yom Tov, where the use of fire is permitted. Thus, initially the custom was only to light candles for Shabbat, while the lighting of candles prior to Yom Tov and reciting the blessing on the lighting only developed afterwards due to a desire to make Yom Tov similar to Shabbat.
Bibliography:
Arusi, Rason, 1979, Blessing on lighting candles for Yom Tov: Examination of custom of Yeminite Jewry, Sinai, 85, pp. 55-91.
Arusi, Rason, 1979, Blessing on lighting candles for Yom Tov: Examination of custom of Yeminite Jewry, Sinai, 85, pp. 55-91.
Hoffmann, Lawrence A. 1979, The canonization of the synagogue service, Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press.
Lauterbach, Jacob (1873-1942), 1973, Rabbinic Essays, New York: Ktav. Reprint of 1951, Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College
Lewin, B.M. 1938, Letoledot ner shel Shabbat, in Essays and studies in memory of Linda R. Miller, edited by Israel Davidson, New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1938, pp. 55-68, Hebrew section.
Lauterbach, Jacob (1873-1942), 1973, Rabbinic Essays, New York: Ktav. Reprint of 1951, Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College
Lewin, B.M. 1938, Letoledot ner shel Shabbat, in Essays and studies in memory of Linda R. Miller, edited by Israel Davidson, New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1938, pp. 55-68, Hebrew section.